Sarbanes Oxley Act and the PCAOB Essay - 1661 Words

The Sarbanes-Oxley Act Overview: The development of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) was a result of public company scandals. The Enron and Worldcom scandals, for example, helped investor confidence in entities traded on the public markets weaken during 2001 and 2002. Congress was quick to respond to the political crisis and enacted the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, which was signed into law by President Bush on July 30 (Edward Jones, 1), to restore investor confidence. In reference to SOX, penalties would be issued to non-ethical or non-law-abiding public companies and their executives, directors, auditors, attorneys, and securities analysts (1). SOX significantly transformed the procedures in which public companies handle internal†¦show more content†¦Title I: Public Company Accounting Oversight Board: The PCAOB gives a new meaning to the public accounting industry. The board must be composed of five members, appointed for a 5-year term, two of which are Certified Public Accountants (CPAs) or have previou sly been CPAs, and three of which have never been CPAs. The chair of the PCAOB may be a CPA, but only if he has been out of practice for at least five years. The members must be independent of the accounting profession as no member may, concurrent with service on the board, share in any of the profits of, or receive payments from, a public accounting firm, other than fixed payment such as retirement payments (4). All members of the PCAOB must be appointed by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The board performs various jobs which include: oversee the audit of public companies, establish audit report standards and rules, inspect, investigate and enforce compliance on the part of registered public accounting firms and those associated with the firms (4). Not only do public accounting firms who audit the financial reports of public companies have to register with the PCAOB, but foreign public accounting firms must register as well. The standards of auditing include: A seven-year retention period for audits work papers, second partner review and approval, evaluation of whether internal control structure and procedures include records that accurately reflect transactions and dispositions ofShow MoreRelatedThe Implications of the Sarbanes Oxley Act on the Accounting Profession755 Words   |  4 PagesThe Implications of the Sarbanes Oxley Act on the Accounting Profession Abstract On July 30, 2002, the Sarbanes Oxley Act (also known as SOX) was signed into law by President George W. Bush. The Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 is a federal law that set new or improved standards for all U.S. public company boards, management and public accounting firms. 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Water Pollution Is A Concern - 1702 Words

Water pollution is the where water bodies such as lakes, oceans, rivers and so on are affected by pollutants which are discharged in water masses either directly or indirectly. Pollutants include toxic waste materials from factories, spillage of oil from oil tankers, pesticides and herbicides from farms, soil erosion which is usually deposited in a water source, sewages from homes and septic tanks spill off nearby water sources and the list is endless. These water pollutants can be categorized into; point-source or nonpoint-source. Point-source pollution is where pollution takes place from a single source example, spillage in the ocean. However, for non-source pollution takes place from many different sources. Example, a river being polluted by pesticides from nearby farms, factory emissions directly in the river and so on. Why Water Pollution Is a Concern Water pollution effects are not always immediate. We as human beings continue to pollute water in ignorance or knowingly that it will affect us in the long run. More than two thirds of the overall population of the earth is occupied by water bodies and the rest human beings. This shows the great extent on the importance of keeping water bodies clean. Water pollution eventually has led to decline in quality of water, causing problems for human beings and animals. In other words, polluted water poses a threat to human beings and animals. Unfortunately, we as human beings have played a big role in water pollution. WaterShow MoreRelatedWater Pollution Is An Issue Of Great Concern992 Words   |  4 PagesWater pollution has become an issue of great concern in our society. Many of today’s water ecosystems and drinking water are being polluted and destroyed as we speak. There are many types of water ecosystems such as oceans, rivers, lakes, and ponds witch provide homes to many diff erent organisms. 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Effects of Early Marriage Essay Sample free essay sample

The reappraisal of the literature for this survey focuses on the effects of early matrimony to the immature people. The chief job about early matrimony focuses on fiscal 1s. Young twosome is merely depressed by their low income. Lack of proper instruction. rawness A ; youth do non assist the immature to have a big payment for the occupations they do. Some immature people decide to acquire married even without any beginnings to bing. Normally immature twosome with low income faces a batch of jobs. And with the aid of their parents. they are able to last without a good calling or occupation. The ground for deficiency of money in a immature household is non merely a low income but besides beaming outlooks of the immature. Teenagers think they will be able to purchase all that things instantly while their parents have needed old ages for accomplishing such wealth. LOCAL STUDY Marriage. as a cardinal societal and cultural establishment and as the most common surroundings for bearing and rise uping kids. deeply shapes sexual behaviours and patterns. It is undeniable that early matrimony is a controversial yet hot subject that gets the attending of the professionals across many Fieldss such as economic system. psychological science and sociology. The age at first matrimony variegates across the Earth. Being married before the age of 18 has been a societal norm in 3rd universe states [ refer to Appendix A ] . The per centum of adult females being married before age 18 is estimated from 20 to 50 per centum in norm in developing states ( Joyce. et Al. . 2001 ) . But so. developed states are improbable to see the resembling form of marriage. The matrimonial brotherhood is usually delayed excessively long although this pattern is believed to convey the most evident ground for the dislocation in sexual moralss ( Orsi. 2001 ) . Out of its wealth and egocentric. western society chooses to get married subsequently in life until they have built a nice adulthood in age. instruction and fiscal province. I earnestly don’t understand the urgency of acquiring married. I am merely 22 and I think I am non physically. emotionally. mentally and socially ready to acquire married. My parents are teasing me with mundane stating that one time they have the right lucifer. they are get marrieding me off. And in all this I wonder if they’d of all time like to cognize what my feelings and emotions sing the matrimony and the individual I am traveling to get married are. I know the individual who I am traveling to get married. I hate to be born in the community where it is necessary for the misss to acquire married at a awfully ear ly age. One should believe in matrimony as the immortality of psyche. And non merely a sudden and emphasized hitching. -Jain Palanca I can non stand when people get married to person after a few months or even a twelvemonth! Again. YOU DON’T KNOW ENOUGH ABOUT YOUR SIGNIFICANT OTHER IN THIS AMOUNT OF TIME TO KNOW THAT YOU WANT TO BE WITH HIM/HER FOREVER! I admit. I would hold got married when I was 18 if Josh would hold been stupid plenty to inquire me. I’m sword lily I didn’t. We would hold neer lasted and I can about wager these relationships won’t either. A matrimony is a COMMITMENT to your husband/wife that you will be with them your full life! If you still can’t make up ones mind what you want for dinner tomorrow. YOU DON’T NEED TO GET MARRIED! And don’t merely acquire married because you’re holding a babe either. -Lovely Cupang Foreign LITERATURE1. BRIEF OVERVIEW ON EARLY MARRIAGE IN AFRICA1. 1 What is the early matrimony?The term â€Å"early marriage† is used to mention to both formal matrimonies and informal brotherhoods in which a miss lives with a spouse as if married before age of 18 ( UNICEF 2005 ; Forum on Marriage and the rights of adult females and misss 2001 ) . For UNIFPA ( 2006 ) Early matrimony. besides known as Child matrimony. is defined as â€Å"any matrimony carried out below the age of 18 old ages. before the miss is physically. physiologically. and psychologically ready to shoulder the duties of matrimony and childbirth. † Child matrimony. on the other manus. involves either one or both partners being kids and may take topographic point with or without formal enrollment. and under civil. spiritual or customary Torahs. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women ( CEDAW ) . the most comprehensive international measure of rights for adult fem ales. provinces that any engagement or matrimony of a kid should non hold any legal position. The Committee that monitors this convention states further in General Recommendation 21 ( Article 16 ( 2 ) ) that the minimal age for matrimony for both male and female should be 18 old ages. the age when â€Å"they have attained full adulthood and capacity to act† . Most early matrimonies are arranged and based on the consent of parents and frequently fail to guarantee the best involvements of the miss kid. Early matrimonies frequently include some elements of force. ( Otoo-Oyortey and Pobi 2003 ) The deficiency of an overarching definition of early matrimony in international conventions has generated some argument. Some bookmans and militants. argue that alternatively of looking for a cosmopolitan age at which misss and male childs should non get married. the focal point should be put alternatively on extinguishing the unwanted effects of early matrimony ( Women’s human rights resources. hypertext transfer protocol: //www. law-lib. utoronto. ca/Diana/index. htm ) . For illustration. some observers suggests that a cosmopolitan age of matrimony is non appropriate. in portion because societies have different apprehension of what it means to be a kid every bit good as different socio-3 economic and cultural worlds. Bunting ( 1999 ) proposes that authoritiess should be allowed to put the age of matrimony below 18 old ages of age. but that the burden is on them to show that this lower age does non ensue in any favoritism or inauspicious effects for adult females. 1. 2 Contex t of early matrimony in Africa While more adult females are now get marrieding at ulterior ages. in many parts. early matrimony remains the norm. Overall. 20-50 per centum of adult females in developing states are married by the age of 18. with the highest per centums in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia ( Singh and Samara 1996 cited by LeFevre et Al. 2004 ) . Early on maternity has been the topic of a turning figure of surveies. research undertakings and intercession plans in Africa. African adult females in general marry at a much earlier age than their nonAfrican opposite numbers. taking to early gestations. Surveies carried out in some Sahelian states offer dismaying illustrations. In Niger. for illustration. harmonizing to the 1992 Health and Demographic Survey ( HDS ) . 47 % of adult females aged between 20 and 24 were married before the age of 15 and 87 % before the age of 18. A sum of 53 % had besides had a kid before the age of 18. ( Locoh Therese 2000 ) . The following tabular array shows the informations about adult females ages 20 to 24 married by 18 old ages old Table1: adult females ages 20 to 24 married by 18 old ages old Country Child Marriage PrevalenceNiger 77 %Chad 71 %Mali 65 %Bangladesh 65 %Guinea 65 %Nepal 56 %Mozambique 57 %Uganda 54 %Burkina Faso 52 %India 50 %Ethiopia 49 %Yemen 48 %Eritrea 47 %Togo 31 %South Africa 8 % Beginning: Demographic Health Survey ( DHS ) information from 1995 to 2003 The tabular array above. shows that in Africa. there are states with really high rates of early matrimony. such as Niger ( 77 per centum ) . Chad ( 71percent ) . and Mozambique ( 57 per centum ) . but others such as Togo in West Africa have a more moderate rate of early matrimony ( 31 per centum ) . while South Africa has a reasonably little per centum of immature adult females who marry early ( 8 per centum ) . Maltur et Ali. 2003 ) . 4 2. Reason FOR EARLY MARRIAGE IN AFRICA The factors which are presented below are non a specialness of African states because they seem to be about the same all over the universe with really few disparities due to civilizations. 2. 1 Economic endurance schemes Poverty is one of the major factors underpinning early matrimony. Where poorness is cunning. a immature miss may be regarded as an economic load where one less girl is one less oral cavity to feed ( UNICEF 2001. Forum on matrimony and the rights of adult females and Girls 2001 ; Mathur 2003 and Nour 2006 ) . Parents encourage the matrimony of their girls while they are still kids in hope that the matrimony will profit them both financially and socially. while besides alleviating fiscal loads on the household. The matrimony to a much older – sometimes even aged – adult male is pattern common in some societies. In traditional societies in Sub-Saharan Africa. the bride’s household may have cowss from the groom. or the groom’s household. as the bride monetary value for their girl. ( UNICEF 2001 ) . The undermentioned instance of a Zimbabwean miss is one of many instances of misss who are married off at a really immature age due to economic restraints. In August 2001. a ten-year-old miss in Zimbabwe was reported in a local newspaper as holding been sold to be a married woman to a 40-year-old adult male in order for the household to obtain hard currency for nutrient. She was sold for $ 2000 Zim that is US $ 7. This amount would possibly hold bought two pokes of corn. The old married woman of the adult male the kid was to get married had died of AIDS ( Forum on matrimony and the rights of adult females and Girls 2001:8 ) In traditional societies – where infant mortality was really high and endurance depended on a family’s ability to bring forth its ain nutrient or goods for sale – kid matrimony helped to maximise the figure of gestations and guarantee adequate lasting kids to run into household labor demands ( Mathur 2003 ) . Additionally. hapless households tend to get married off misss at the same clip to assist cut down the load of high matrimony ceremonial disbursals. 2. 2 Socio-cultural and spiritual valuesIn communities where child matrimony is prevailing. there is strong societal force per unit area on households to conform. Failure to conform can frequently ensue in ridicule. disapproval or household shame. Invariably. local perceptual experiences on the ideal age for matrimony. the desire for submissive married womans. extended household forms and other customary demands. are all enshrined in local imposts or spiritual norms. In many contexts child matrimony is legitimized by patriarchate. and related household constructions. which guarantee that matrimony transportations a father’s function over his miss kid to her hereafter partner. The matrimony or engagement of kids in parts of Africa and Asian is valued as a agency of consolidating powerful dealingss between households. for sealing trades over land or other belongings. or even for settling differences ( UNIFPA. 2006 ) The strong spiritual message besides enforce the position that get marrieding early is best as supported by the undermentioned positions of one priest stand foring Ethiopian’s Orthodox church. He argues that â€Å"these yearss. with western thoughts spread everyplace ; misss stay single every bit tardily as 30. It is really scientific and modern. but in our church it is prohibited. Such misss are neither clean. nor blessed† . ( Barnes et al. 1998 ) . 2. Reason FOR EARLY MARRIAGE IN AFRICAThe factors which are presented below are non a specialness of African states because they seem to be about the same all over the universe with really few disparities due to civilizations. 2. 1 Economic endurance schemes Poverty is one of the major factors underpinning early matrimony. Where poorness is cunning. a immature miss may be regarded as an economic load where one less girl is one less oral cavity to feed ( UNICEF 2001. Forum on matrimony and the rights of adult females and Girls 2001 ; Mathur 2003 and Nour 2006 ) . Parents encourage the matrimony of their girls while they are still kids in hope that the matrimony will profit them both financially and socially. while besides alleviating fiscal loads on the household. The matrimony to a much older – sometimes even aged – adult male is pattern common in some societies. In traditional societies in Sub-Saharan Africa. the bride’s household may have cowss from the groom. or the groom’s household. as the bride monetary value for their girl. ( UNICEF 2001 ) . The undermentioned instance of a Zimbabwean miss is one of many instances of misss who are married off at a really immature age due to economic restraints. In August 2001. a ten-year-old miss in Zimbabwe was reported in a local newspaper as holding been sold to be a married woman to a 40-year-old adult male in order for the household to obtain hard currency for nutrient. She was sold for $ 2000 Zim that is US $ 7. This amount would possibly hold bought two pokes of corn. The old married woman of the adult male the kid was to get married had died of AIDS ( Forum on matrimony and the rights of adult females and Girls 2001:8 ) In traditional societies – where infant mortality was really high and endurance depended on a family’s ability to bring forth its ain nutrient or goods for sale – kid matrimony helped to maximise the figure of gestations and guarantee adequate lasting kids to run into household labor demands ( Mathur 2003 ) . Additionally. hapless households tend to get married off misss at the same clip to assist cut down the load of high matrimony ceremonial disbursals. 2. 2 Socio-cultural and spiritual valuesIn communities where child matrimony is prevailing. there is strong societal force per unit area on households to conform. Failure to conform can frequently ensue in ridicule. disapproval or household shame. Invariably. local perceptual experiences on the ideal age for matrimony. the desire for submissive married womans. extended household forms and other customary demands. are all enshrined in local imposts or spiritual norms. In many contexts child matrimony is legitimized by patriarchate. and related household constructions. which guarantee that matrimony transportations a father’s function over his miss kid to her hereafter partner. The matrimony or engagement of kids in parts of Africa and Asian is valued as a agency of consolidating powerful dealingss between households. for sealing trades over land or other belongings. or even for settling differences ( UNIFPA. 2006 ) The strong spiritual message besides enforce the position that get marrieding early is best as supported by the undermentioned positions of one priest stand foring Ethiopian’s Orthodox church. He argues that â€Å"these yearss. with western thoughts spread everyplace ; misss stay single every bit tardily as 30. It is really scientific and modern. but in our church it is prohibited. Such misss are neither clean. nor blessed† . ( Barnes et al. 1998 ) . 5 2. 3 Value of virginity and protection of immature misssEarly matrimony is one manner to guarantee that a married woman is protected. or placed steadfastly under male control ; that she is submissive to her hubby and works difficult for her in-laws’ family ; that the kids she bears are legitimate. ( UNICEF 2001 ; Mathur. 2003 and Nour 2006 ) . On the other manus. for many societies that prize virginity before matrimony. early matrimony can attest itself in a figure of patterns designed to ‘protect’ a miss from unsanctioned sexual activity. In North-East Africa and parts of the Middle East in peculiar. control may besides include the pattern of female venereal mutilation ( FGM to curtail sexual pleasance and enticement. Some parents withdraw their misss from school every bit shortly as they begin to flow ; fearing that exposure to male students or instructors puts them at hazard. These patterns are all intended to screen the miss from male sexual attending. but in the eyes of concerned parents. matrimony is seen to offer the ultimate protection step. In Wars and civil struggles parents or callings resort to child matrimony as a protective mechanism or survival scheme. Displaced populations populating in refugee cantonments may experience unable to protect their girls from colza. and so marriage to a warlord or other authorization figure may supply improved protection. For the immature misss orphans or separated with their parents or relatives the lone manner to last and to acquire protection is to acquire married. ( De Smedt 1998 ) . 3. KEY ISSUES SURROUNDING EARLY MARRIAGE ( CONSEQUENCES ) There tends to be a relationship between age of matrimony. degree of instruction. poorness. and wellness: poorer. less educated misss tend to get married earlier and be given besides to hold poorer wellness. The undermentioned effects tend to flux from early matrimony: 3. 1 Health and related resultsEarly kid bearing and unwanted gestations: Young misss who get married will most likely be forced into holding sexual intercourse with their. normally much older. hubbies. This has terrible negative wellness effects as the miss is frequently non psychologically. physically and sexually mature. Early matrimony is associated with early kid bearing. Young married misss are under enormous force per unit area to turn out their birthrate in the first twelvemonth of matrimony. Girls. who marry immature. necessarily have kids early. and have many kids. because their cognition of contraceptive method is hapless and their power to negociate its usage is weak. Domestic force and sexual maltreatment: As immature misss are frequently married to work forces who are much older than themselves. the age difference tends to reenforce the impotence of the miss. who is therefore at greater hazard of maltreatment and less likely to asseverate herself. Young married misss are more likely to be beaten or threatened and more likely to believe that a hubby might sometimes be justified in crushing his married woman. Womans who believe that are more likely to hold been married before age 18 than those who believe that there is neer justification. Child brides are frequently more susceptible to domestic force. ( USAID Gender Assessment. 2003-2005 ) . In Egypt. information indicates that 29 % of married striplings were beaten by their spouses—or their partners and others. Of these. 41 % were beaten when they were pregnant. ( Population Council. 2000 cited by ICRW. 2008 ) . High maternal mortality and morbidity: The World Health Organization estimates that the hazard of decease following gestation is twice every bit great for adult females between 15 and 19 old ages than for those between the ages of 20 and 24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for misss aged between 10 and 14 than for adult females of about 20 old ages of age. Pregnant striplings face far more wellness jobs than older adult females. peculiarly individual misss who frequently receive less antenatal attention. Adolescents are far more susceptible to enduring from anaemia than grownups. which greatly increase the hazard and complications linked to gestation. They are every bit more at hazard of malnutrition. high blood force per unit area linked to gestation and eclampsia than adult females who are over 20. ( Women’s International Network 2000 and IHEU 2006 ) Increased hazard of undertaking sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS: Fear of HIV infection. for illustration. has encouraged work forces in some African states to seek immature virgin – and hence clean –partners. On top of pregnancy-related complications. immature married misss are besides at high hazard of undertaking sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS. Young married misss are even at higher hazard because their older hubbies may already be infected in old sexual relationships. Furthermore. the age difference between the miss and the hubby and her low economic position make it about impossible for the miss to negociate safe sex or demand fidelity. Early matrimony normally means that immature misss enter matrimony without equal information about critical sexual intercourse. contraceptive method. sexually familial diseases. gestation and childbearing. 3. 2 Lack of power It is hypothesized that adult females who are married as kids have less determination doing power than adult females whose matrimony is delayed until maturity. They don’t have ability to do determination on their ain wellness attention. contraceptive method. family budget. daily family purchases. visit to household and friends etc. ( UNICEF. 1996 ) . They have small power in relation to their hubbies and in-laws. 3. 4 Divorce or forsaking and Early Widowhood Some despairing misss and adult females who have been forced into matrimony attempt to run off or take other avenues to go forth their partners ; others are abandoned by their partners. However. the misss and adult females are normally left with the duty of raising kids without the hubby or family’s fiscal support. therefore doing them more likely to populate in poorness. In many civilizations. hubbies are frequently many old ages older than their immature brides. and accordingly decease while the miss is still immature. Traditionally. misss were non allowed to remarry or were passed onto their dead husbands’ brothers. Furthermore. the girl’s households are improbable to accept her dorsum once she has become widowed. ( UNICEF 2001 ) . In civilizations that permit polygamy. the youngest co-wife is required to care for elder co-wives. This relationship is sometimes a daughter/mother relationship. but in many instances the senior wives view the younger with resentme nt and bitterness. 3. 5 Consequences for kidsThe wellness jobs linked to early matrimony non merely affect the pregnant female parent and the foetus. but besides continue after kid birth. The effects reach beyond the lives of immature married misss themselves to the following coevals. The immatureness and deficiency of instruction of a immature female parent undermines her capacity for raising grounds shows that infant mortality among the kids of really immature female parents is higher – sometimes two times higher – than among those of older equals. ( UNICEF2001 ) 3. 6 Support of gender stereotypes and functionsThe deficiency of other chances and the impotence that frequently accompanies early matrimony combine to perpetuate the gender functions of misss and adult females and reinforces cultural traditions that support early matrimony as a desirable pattern. DecisionThis paper has shown that kid matrimony is an recognized cultural pattern in many states particularly in developing states with more prevalence in Sub-Saharan Africa. It is still widely sanctioned. even though it is a misdemeanor of the human rights of immature misss due to assorted motivations. Early matrimony can go against the rights of misss and male childs. both in this coevals and the following but this is an issue that impacts upon misss in far larger Numberss and with more strength. More accent has been given to misss as the experience for male child is. less likely to be exploitatory or physically harmful as it is for misss. The infliction of a matrimony spouse on kids or striplings who are in no manner ready for married life. and whose matrimony will strip them of freedom. chance for personal development. and other rights including wellness and wellbeing. instruction. and engagement in civic life. nullifies the significance of the Convention on the Rights of the Chi ld’s nucleus protections for those concerned. Numerous terrible effects result from the pattern of early matrimony. Early matrimony is per se linked to low degrees of instruction. high degrees of force and maltreatment. societal isolation. terrible wellness hazards and harmful power kineticss and consequences in increased gender inequality and exposure to poverty for misss. immature adult females. households and the society as a whole. This pattern besides threatens the international development attempt to contend against poorness and related challenges in developing states.